Arousal Theories.

Arousal - This is a state of anticipation and alertness, this prepares the body for an action
Arousal theories is relationship between arousal and performance. There are 4 theories of arousal, these are:


Drive Theory:

Drive theory is the description that the higher you are aroused, the higher your performance level will be. An example of this is, the more you feel up to playing in a game, the more likely you are to perform at a high level.

The positives of having a high level of arousal is that you will want to play to the best of your ability and you will enjoy being out on the field with your team mates. On the contrast, a negative is, if you are over aroused, you may feel overly confident and attempt to do thing in the game that can effect the way the team play or could effect your own game. This can be because you will not perform with seriousness, this will cause lapses of concentration and conviction.

Inverted U Theory:

The inverted U theory is the breakdown of our arousal levels and how they can change and effect our performance. Moderate levels of arousal result in high levels of performance. Too much or not enough levels of arousal results in a lower performance level.



Positives of this are, when your arousal level reaches its highest point, your performance will be at its upmost best.The negative is, once your arousal level gets too high, your performance level will begin to drop. This can dramatically effect how you play throughout the rest of the game.

Catastrophe Theory:

Catastrophe theory is very similar to the U theory, only when an athlete has low cognitive anxiety. When the anxiety is too high the performance drops.

The positive of this theory is that your arousal levels can be at a moderate level for you to perform at at good level, however, once you being to worry, your level of performance will drop significantly.

Individual Zones of optimal functioning Theory:

Each person has their own optimal performance level, This theory coincides with the U theory that too high of an arousal level will result in a low level of performance.

 The positive of this theory, is that in a team more than one person will begin to worry and their performance will drop, but there will be other players that will encourage them resulting in them feeling at ease. This will make them perform better knowing they have moral support from their team mates. The negative is that if you are not easily motivated if will be difficult for you to pick yourself up if you feel anxious and your performance drops.


Cristiano Ronaldo has the Drive theory. This is evident as he will perform depending on how he feels leading up to the game. This shows us that his arousal level was low as his performance was poor. Cristiano went seven games without scoring a goal, this is evidence that after the fourth game his motivation level was low and he found it difficult to pick himself up. On the other hand, throughout his playing career, Cristiano Ronaldo has proven to have a high arousal level as he has exceeded a lot of expectations and goals set for him. 

Symptons of Stress and Anxiety.

Looking further on from the post on causes of stress and anxiety, I will now look at the symptoms of stress and anxiety. There are three different symptoms of anxiety, These are:






Cognitive Anxiety:
Cognitive anxiety is more to relate with all the emotional and mental state dealing with anxiety. If you have cognitive anxiety you are most likely to have negative thoughts all the time, you'll be indecisions a lot you may even loss confidence and have poor concentration.






Somatic Anxiety:
This form of anxiety is related with the inner body reaction and feelings. If you feel this form of anxiety, your blood pressure would rise and you feel muscular tension. This is the opposite of cognitive anxiety.






Behavioural Anxiety:
Behavioural anxiety is the reaction to both cognitive and somatic anxiety. You will natural start biting your nails or you will be very fugitive and unable to keep still. This is all nervous behaviour, you may also feel this way due to feeling cautions.

Causes of Stress and Anxiety

There are numerous ways in which stress and anxiety can be caused, in this post I will look at a few ways in which stress can be built up and anxiety is caused.


Internal:
Stress and anxiety can build up from inside this can be due to not having enough sleep or by worrying about something too much. The constant thought that something may go wrong or right will make you anxious and this will further stress you out. Additionally, not speaking out to a friend or to a professional about what is worrying you can lead to depression. Overall, this will negatively effect your sporting performance as you will feel tied down with all the thoughts you are worrying about. Also, you will not be as concentrated as you would be if you were not anxious or stressed out.




External:
This is related to this things that are happening around you, if you are in a crowded place you may feel anxious that something bad could possibly happen, this can result in panic attacks this is because you cannot control what is happening. Stress can also be caused if you are with friends and one of them gets lost in the crowd, it will be stressful trying to find the person as there is so many people in the area. Being bullied can be both internal and external. This is because if you don't tell anyone that you are being bullied you will bottle it up inside. This can cause high levels of stress and anxiety as you will be conscious and worried to go out as you might see the person or people that are bullying you. Major life events can also cause stress and anxiety. Events such as a death in the family or finding out that a loved one may be terminally ill. The shock and devastation will make you constantly upset, stress will build up over time during the grieving period. This can effect your performance as the thought of the passed or suffering loved one will be on your mind and this will distract you from performing at your optimal best.




Occupational:
Pressures of having high expectations at work can be stressful as you will have good and bad days. Additionally, falling out with your coach or manager can be stressful as you will need to repair the bond that was broken. Anxiety is also a factor as you will think whether the coach will play you or not because of the fall out. Being injured will also cause stress. This is because you will want to take part in training and matches, this could push you to rush your recovery and further aggravated your injury. The stress will build up over time and may start to cause depression.




Sporting environment:
Like occupational stress, different sporting environment cause bring different levels of stress. Playing big games away from your home ground can be daunting as  the supporters will booing and hackling against you and your team. The reverse situation, if you're playing at your home ground, there will be a lot of pressure as the home fans will expect a great individual and team performance.




Personal:
We feel pressure when we what to do well and impress those that we care about such as our family and friends. You feel pressure as you don't want to let them down at anytime during the game or throughout your career. Additionally, there is pressure from the media and even potential sponsors. This can push an athlete to feel stress and this can cause them to be tense during the game.

Stress and Anxiety.

Stress -

The build up of high amounts of pressure and/or tension and a state of mental or emotional strain resulting from a pattern of negative, difficult or demanding circumstances.

There are two forms of stress, these are:

Distress: 

Distress is the bad form of stress, this form can result in an individual developing a lot of worry and anxiety. The gradual build up of this negative stress will begin to be adopted as the individuals lifestyle habit and will have negative impacts on the way they look at life. "Negative thoughts equal negative outcomes" this quote shows us that if you are constantly looking for negatives the result will never be positive.

Eustress:
Eustress is the good form of stress and refers to the optimal amount of stress which helps promote health and growth. Many times stressful events push us to perform to higher levels and excel this is eustress.

With the reputation and expectation that everyone has for Cristiano Ronaldo, there is a lot of pressure and stress he has to deal with. I think he uses stress and pressure to motivate him and push him to exceed more in his career. This is Eustress. Cristiano absorbs the pressure and puts it into his game to elevated his performances.

Anxiety -

Anxiety is associated when you encounter a negative emotional state that is the brought with nervousness or worry. Anxiety is the conscious feeling to something that may or may not happen in the future. There are two types of anxiety, these are:

Trait anxiety:
Trait anxiety refers to a general level of stress that is characteristic of an individual, that is, a trait related to personality. Trait anxiety varies according to how individuals have conditioned themselves to respond to and manage the stress.


State anxiety:
State anxiety can be defined as a temporary, ever-changing mood including fear, nervousness and discomfort due to different situations that are perceived as dangerous but once approached the perception is changed. There are two types of state anxiety,
- Cognitive: this is the amount you worry
-Somatic: your perception of the physiological changes that occur.

Cristiano Ronaldo has trait anxiety, this is because he can easily adapt to a situation in order to remain composed and to use the anxiety he feels to encourage him and the ambition to play well. 

Motivation Theories

Motivation Theories-


Achievement Motivation Theory:


This form of motivation comes from ones personality and is your drive to succeed. This statement was proposed by Atkinson in 1964.
People motivated in this way can be grouped into two categories:

  - NACH (need to achieve): These people are Driven for feelings of pride and  satisfaction. Overall theses people are Positive thinkers.


  - NAF (need to avoid failure): These people are driven to not feel ashamed or humiliated. These are negative thinkers.



Attribution Theory:

Attributions are reasons why we do things. They come under 3 categories:

-Controllable and uncontrollable -

Controllable theories are things that I am able to control such as my mental strength during a game that will motivate me to work harder. On the other hand, Uncontrollable theories are things that happen that can go against you performance, these are factors such as the weather or the condition of the football pitch.

-Internal and external -

Internal motivation theory is when I am the reason for the outcome. Having the ability to outwit my opponent and beat them.This also means I have the motivation from within me to accomplish my targets. External motivation is the opposite and is when your opponent is the reason for the outcome. Either they benefit your performance by playing poorly or they can make it much more difficult for the outcome to be positive.

-Stable and unstable -

Being stable means that I take responsibility for the outcome, whether it  positive or negative. Having the ability to do this portrays mental strength and this can elevated your performance in sport and in life. Unstable is always having an excuse for the outcome. Excuses like the referee was unfair or the playing surface was in horrible condition. This can negatively effect your performance by making you think you'll always be cheated against then you'll be know for always having excuses and always complaining.



Trait Theory:

Trait theory is a persons traits that determine their behaviour and their personality. If you're a motivated person off the playing field, you'll be even more motivated during matches and this can enhance your performance as you'll push yourself to the limit to exceed exceptions set by yourself and by your club. However, if you're not a motivated person then you'll struggle to be motivated on match day and it will negatively impact your performance.

Situational Theory:
Situational theory is when you are influenced and motivated by the situation you are in at that current time. If you are in a situation where you will can achieve a set goal, your motivation will be to work harder in order to accomplish this goal. On the contrast, if you are in a situation where it is impossible to win as your team have conceded 5 goal and there is only ten minutes left of the game, you will not have the motivation to work as hard as you did during the game.






Interactional Theory:
Interactional theory is a mix of your personality and the situation you are in. If you are shy and reserved as a person and shy away from big decisive tasks and you are placed centre stage (to take a cup winning penalty), you will be nervous and will lack the motivation to take the penalty with confidence. However, place someone that thrives off the big tasks to take this penalty, they will be highly motivated and will have the confidence that they will score and win the cup for their team.


I think Cristiano Ronaldo is motivated to Achieve goals and to progress his performance as an athlete. I think Cristiano is motivated in this way as he constantly wants to achieve greatness and hates losing. therefore I think this motivation type best suits him as he always wants to improve on his skills and develop his knowledge for the sport in order to minimise the chance of failure. In his "All access" interview it was said that by one of his coaches that " He (Cristiano Ronaldo) is always working 10x harder than any other footballer in his team on and off the pitch to develop his performance and to also work on keeping fit and healthy in order to play at his upmost best.

Motivation Types

Motivation Types.

• What is intrinsic motivation?  

Intrinsic motivation refers to behavior that is driven by internal rewards. This means the person is motivated and driven to be successful by things such as family, fans, self mastery and for the passion for what they do.

• What are examples of intrinsic motivation?

Examples of  intrinsic motivation is when an athlete is constantly training and working on their game in order to exceed the best they possibly can. Another example of intrinsic motivation is, if an athlete is playing in the starting squad week in, week out and are considered one of the best in the club and is then offered more money at a bigger club than they're at but to sit on the bench, the athlete would refuse the deal in order to keep playing matches/games.

• What is Extrinsic motivation?

Extrinsic motivation is when an athlete takes part in sport for the external rewards. This means the athlete is only motivated to achieve things such as money, trophies and records. 

• What are examples of extrinsic motivation?

Examples of extrinsic motivation is where an athlete engages in sport not for the passion but as a way to pass time. They will take part only to break records and for money. For example, if an athlete refuses to take part because they will not get paid, this is extrinsic motivation.





Cristiano Ronaldo is motivated both intrinsically and extrinsically. His passion for football has given him the possibility to achieve extrinsic rewards such as multiple trophies and additionally allowed for him to break and also set records withing the sport.

Positives of having these qualities are, by being intrinsically motivated he has enabled his skill and performance levels to draw in all the rewards wanted from someone that is intrinsically motivated such as the love and respect from family, friends and fans. however, Cristiano Ronaldo has received some extrinsic rewards due to being intrinsically motivated.

Negatives are, Cristiano Ronaldo is looked upon as being to arrogant and cocky because of his intrinsic motivation this can lead to a drop in performance level if the negativity is absorbed by the athlete. In addition, because of the high level of performance Cristiano Ronaldo is known to produce, if he does not perform well for a few games, he is once again looked upon as a footballer that is just in the professional sport to earn money and not play to his highest ability.

Personality Types Pt.2

Cristiano Ronaldo.

For a worldwide known athlete, Cristiano Ronaldo has a similar personality to a non athlete and this is not always portrayed but it has a huge impact on the way he performs in his desired sport. He is a down to earth, loving and caring person. This is evident as his states in an All access interview with CNN that he loves his son more than anything in the world. He loves to be accepted by all adoring fans, however, like any other person, he gets upset when he is not liked.
He has very similar personality traits to non athletes. This is evident as he is always looking for new challenges in his life and career, he is also very competitive and appreciative for every opportunity he is given.

Cristiano Ronald displays different personality traits to some other footballers in the professional game. His attitude to hard work and dedication is portrayed in his exquisite performances. He is always the first player at training and the last to leave the training ground, this shows that his personality trait is driven and he constantly strives for success. Additionally, he is seen by some supporters as distant and not hard working during games so is often given a bad name. However, Cristiano Ronaldo does have some similar personality traits as some of his team mates. These traits are, his commitment to the sport and his professionalism.
   Due to his drive and hard work, it was said in the CNN all access interview that Cristiano Ronaldo has scored just over 200 goals in his last 4 seasons in the top flight of football with Real Madrid. This provides us with evidence that he has a personality that is always wanting more and more. It has been said by his former manager that he believes Cristiano loves football more than any other professional.

Cristiano Ronaldo has different personality to a tennis player, this is because he has to work in a team and with a lot of different people with very different characters. Whereas a tennis player would only have to communicate with 5-7 people as in coaches, and management. Cristiano Ronaldo must be able to adapt his personality when dealing with different people. For example, if one of his team mates were going through difficult personal situations, he would have to show a sensitive, caring personality, but then if speaking to another team mate after and they were talking about good news, Cristiano would then change from being sensitive to excited and joyful. On the other hand, a tennis player would not have to deal with these different personalities at one time.

There are factors in Cristiano Ronaldo's life that have influenced his personality in a positive way. The death of his father and the birth of his son have given Cristiano the drive to provide for his son and be the best he possibly can, additionally, dealing with the death of his father has changed his personality making him more reserved from certain things but also making him emotional. This has rubbed off and implemented into his performances.

Over the course of his professional footballing career, Cristiano Ronaldo has had to deal with constant media attention, publicity and becoming known all over the world for what he does. However, he sometimes wishes that he was not famous and had a normal life like a non athlete.

Cristiano Ronaldo's personality has positively influenced his performance as he has worked hard over many years both technically, and physically to improve his performances. He has given the sport excitement and brilliance due to his charisma and dedication.

On the contrast, due to the flashy skills he has developed over hard work on the training ground, he wants to always show his skill and sometimes they are not a success as he hopes, this has a negative impact on his performance as he may loose possession of the ball and will not work to win the ball back after losing it.

I wouldn't change any of Cristiano Ronaldo's traits as he has all that is needed to be the best footballer in the world.

Personality Theories.

Personalities.

Personality - Personality is the combination of characteristics and qualities which in total makes them an individual. for example confidence and humor.

Trait theory - Trait theory is a persons traits that determine their behaviour. traits are split into to types, these are, Introvert and Extrovert;
   
  - Introvert personalities are more independent and reserved and prefer to do things on their own. Additionally, they have a high level of concentration. for example, they would rather stay home and revise than going out to party.

  -Extrovert personalities are the opposite and love to work in large groups. These personalities are seemed to be very attention seeking and are highly creative. for example, they are confident when introduced to new company.

Situational approach - Situational approach is when someone's behaviour changes depending on the situation they are in. An example of this is when out with friends your personality is chilled, boisterous and outgoing, however if you had a job interview, your persona would change drastically, you'd be more formal and reserved. This is because you want to impress those that are interviewing you.

Interactional approach - Interactional approach is the combination of trait and situational approach that influences ones behaviour. As an example a football player may have a 'short temper' which often leads to rash and potentially aggressive actions. Yet the football player will not show that behaviour consistently. Only when he is forced to react to psychological behaviour triggers does the player become aggressive and snap in a violent manner.

Social learning theory - This is when you idolise someone's mannerism and behaviour and adopt them as your own and replicate their ways. This is similar to having a role model. An example of this is when you look at your sports coach and admire his/her attitude towards working hard and behaving respectfully, then wanting to be just like them, this would require you to look and study the way they behave and carry themselves in order to do so.
This occurs in four stages;

Attention: The athlete must do things in which we like to see to get our attention. whether its physically or by the way are respected within their sporting industry.

Retention: Having the ability to imitate they way the athlete performs and the way they behave and constantly have this i mind.

Motor reproduction: We need to have the ability to perform the way the athlete does and use the skill we have learnt from them when needed.

Motivational response: Without being motivated, none of these factors will matter.



I think that Cristiano Ronaldo has a situational approach. this is because his personality changes depending on the situation he is in. For example, when at training, he will be a cheerful, happy person making jokes and being silly with his fellow team mates. However, if he was in a meeting with his sponsors such as Nike, he would not be silly but more formal and composed in front of them at all times.

Personality Types

Type A personality -


This type of personality best describes those who are always on the go and that strive for success. they are also looking for things to do and are highly competitive. Those with type A personality have a high level of anxiety. This is because they are always wanting to achieve goals and failure to be successful can cause stress among these people. For example, someone wanting to climb the ladder in their job to earn a higher job title.. These people are also seen to be Extrovert.


Type B personality -

This type of personality is the opposite to Type A. this means, those that are like this are very laid back and are not that outgoing. they will also take the best as is comes instead of working hard to get it. They are also very creative as they don't rush things and are relaxed enough to piece things together in order to create the best work thy can. For example, an artist who would prefer t work alone in quiet to be creative than work in large groups. People that have Type B personalities are known to be introvert.




Cristiano Ronaldo -


Cristiano Ronaldo has the personality of a person with type A and type B. this is because he is such a hard worker in his sport both on and off the pitch. He is driven to be the best footballer in the world. Additionally, he is a creative footballer, this means he has the traits of both personalities. Some examples of type A personality Cristiano Ronaldo shows on the pitch are;


He will never give up until the final whistle is blown, If he took a shot at goal and missed, he wouldn't doubt his ability to scoring the next time he shoots at goal, this was evident in his game for Real Madrid against Sevilla when he took 8 shots throughout the game and only scored 3. Additionally, if he receives the ball on the wing and attempts to beat his opponent but is unsuccessful, he will not get down hearted, he will try continuously until he is successful.


An example of the type B personality that Cristiano Ronaldo has are:


He is skilful and uses his creative ability to beat opposing players to advance into attacking positions on the pitch. He is also relaxed when going into games and portrays a chilled calm persona like someone with Type B personality would have.

Introduction.

                                                              Cristiano Ronaldo.

Name: Cristiano Ronaldo ( Real Madrid )

Sport: Football

Level they play: Professional footballer both in domestic football and international.

Club Achievements 

Manchester United^[574]

• Premier League: 2006–07, 2007–08, 2008–09
• FA Cup: 2003–04; Runner-up: 2004–05, 2006–07
• Football League Cup: 2005–06, 2008–09
• FA Community Shield: 2007
• UEFA Champions League: 2007–08; Runner-up: 2008–09
• UEFA Super Cup Runner-up: 2008
• FIFA Club World Cup: 2008

Real Madrid^[574]

• La Liga: 2011–12
• Copa del Rey: 2010–11, 2013–14; Runner-up: 2012–13
• Supercopa de España: 2012; Runner up: 2011, 2014
• UEFA Champions League: 2013–14
• UEFA Super Cup: 2014
• FIFA Club World Cup: 2014

International achievements 

Portugal

• UEFA European Championship:

Runner-up: 2004

Bronze: 2012

Individual achievements

• FIFA World Player of the Year: 2008^[574]
• UEFA Euro Team of the Tournament: 2004, 2012
• Bravo Award: 2004
• UEFA Team of the Year: 2004, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014
• Sir Matt Busby Player of the Year: 2003–04, 2006–07, 2007–08
• PFA Premier League Team of the Year: 2005–06, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2008–09
• PFA Young Player of the Year: 2006–07
• PFA Players' Player of the Year: 2006–07, 2007–08
• FWA Footballer of the Year: 2006–07, 2007–08
• Barclays Player of the Year 2006–07, 2007–08
• Premier League Player of the Month: November 2006, December 2006, January 2008, March 2008
• ESM Team of the Year: 2006–07, 2007–08, 2010–11, 2011–12, 2012–13, 2013–14
• Premier League Golden Boot: 2007–08
• European Golden Shoe: 2007–08, 2010–11, 2013–14^[574]
• FIFA FIFPro World XI: 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014
• UEFA Champions League top scorer: 2007–08, 2012–13, 2013–14
• UEFA Club Forward of the Year: 2007–08
• UEFA Club Footballer of the Year: 2007–08
• FIFA Club World Cup Silver Ball: 2008, 2014
• Ballon d'Or: 2008^[574]
• FIFPro World Player of the Year: 2008^[574]
• Onze d'Or: 2008, 2013
• World Soccer Player of the Year: 2008, 2013, 2014
• FIFA Puskás Award: 2009
• La Liga top scorer: 2010–11, 2013–14^[574]
• Copa del Rey top goalscorer: 2010–11
• Trofeo Alfredo Di Stéfano: 2011–12, 2012–13, 2013–14
• UEFA Euro Top scorer: 2012
• La Liga Player of the Month: November 2013
• LFP Most Valuable Player: 2012–13
• IFFHS World's Best Top Goal Scorer: 2013^[576]
• ESPY Awards Best International Athlete: 2014^[577]
• UEFA Best Player in Europe Award: 2013–14
• UEFA Champions League Team of the Season: 2013–14
• LFP Best Player: 2013–14
• LFP Best Forward: 2013–14
• LFP Best Goal: 2013–14
• BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year: 2014

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristiano_Ronaldo#Individual (Reference)